James II of England, born in 1633, was the second surviving son of King Charles I and Henrietta Maria of France. His early life was marked by the upheaval of the English Civil Wars, which pitched his father against Parliament. As a teenager, James fled to the European continent following the defeat of the Royalist forces and spent a good portion of his youth in exile, even serving in the French and Spanish armies.

James returned to England in 1660, following the restoration of the monarchy under his elder brother, Charles II. Before becoming king, he served as Lord High Admiral, and it was during this period that he converted to Catholicism, a decision that would have profound implications for his later reign. This conversion was controversial in a predominately Protestant England and raised concerns about potential Catholic influence on the throne.

Upon Charles II's death in 1685, James ascended the throne. His reign, however, was characterized by increasing tension over religious matters. James' Catholicism, combined with his decisions to grant religious freedoms to Catholics and Dissenters, alarmed the Anglican establishment. This wasn't because of a broad dedication to religious freedom but rather was seen as a way to garner support from groups that might bolster his position against a Protestant majority.

His relationship with Parliament was tumultuous. When it became evident that Parliament would not support his pro-Catholic policies, James adopted the strategy of his Tudor ancestors and ruled without it for most of his reign.

Foreign relations during James' reign were complicated by religious tensions. His Catholicism aligned him more closely with France, a traditional enemy, than with Protestant nations. This realignment was viewed with suspicion and concern by many in England.

James' familial relationships were likewise complex. He had two marriages, the first with Anne Hyde, producing two Protestant-raised daughters, Mary and Anne. His second marriage to the Catholic Mary of Modena produced a son, James Francis Edward Stuart. The birth of a Catholic heir intensified fears of a Catholic dynasty, which significantly contributed to his downfall.

The culmination of the tensions during James' reign was the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Concerned about the Catholic trajectory of the monarchy, a group of English Parliamentarians invited James' daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange, to invade England. James' rule collapsed rapidly, and he was forced into exile, marking the end of his reign and the beginning of William and Mary's joint rule.

James spent the remainder of his life in exile in France, dying there in 1701. His death was met with relief by many in England, who viewed his reign as a threat to Protestantism and parliamentary rule. The Jacobites, however, supporters of James and his heirs, remained a significant force and continued to challenge the legitimacy of the succeeding monarchs.

Culturally, the late 17th century in England was a time of scientific and philosophical advancement. The Royal Society flourished, promoting scientific exploration and discovery. It was also the era of the Restoration theatre, with playwrights like John Dryden taking center stage. Society was marked by the beginnings of party politics, with Whigs and Tories emerging as dominant political groups, and by ongoing debates about the rights of the monarchy versus Parliament. The events of James II's reign played a significant role in shaping the constitutional monarchy that would emerge in the 18th century.